Specifically, GLP-1RA administration downregulated the protein expression of haptoglobin, upregulated levels of PRKC apoptosis WT1 regulator (PAWR) and of synapsis-related proteins including synapsin-1, phosphodiesterase-2A (PDE2A), dihydropyrimidinase-like 2 (DPYSL2), neurofibromin-1, and microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B), and increased neuronal and synaptic densities [59]
It is speculated that these differences account for altered nitric oxide metabolism, oxidative stress and vascular endothelial dysfunction, thereby predisposing to optic disc oedema [76, 78]
Type 1 diabetes is a different condition that requires insulin therapy because the body does not produce its own insulin
Another important factor in the incretin pathway is dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), an enzyme that degrades the incretin hormones [94]